Phylacteries (Tefillin) found in Wadi Murabba'at containing passages from Exodus and Deuteronomy.

Phylacteries (Tefillin) found in Wadi Murabba'at containing passages from Exodus and Deuteronomy.

A unique tefillin (phylactery) slip discovered in Cave 4 near Qumran, written on both sides of a single parchment strip (an opisthograph). It was designed to be folded and placed within a leather tefillin case for prayer, reflecting the ancient Jewish practice of keeping biblical passages close to the body. The handwriting displays a distinctive semi-cursive script characteristic of Jewish ritual items during the Second Temple period.

This ancient manuscript is a tefillin (phylactery) slip, preserving Deuteronomy 11:4–8 on the front (recto) and Exodus 13:4–9 on the back (verso). It is an opisthograph, meaning it has writing on both sides of the parchment, and provides some of the earliest physical evidence of Jewish ritual prayer practices.

A Hasmonean-period Hebrew manuscript containing fragments of the Book of Exodus, including early passages about the Passover and the month of Abib. Due to its compact size, scholars suggest this fragment may have been used for liturgical readings or personal study.

A Hasmonean-period Hebrew manuscript containing fragments of the Book of Exodus, including early passages about the Passover and the month of Abib. Due to its compact size, scholars suggest this fragment may have been used for liturgical readings or personal study.

A Hasmonean-period Hebrew manuscript containing fragments of the Book of Exodus, including early passages about the Passover and the month of Abib. Due to its compact size, scholars suggest this fragment may have been used for liturgical readings or personal study.

An ancient Hebrew phylactery (tefillin) manuscript containing passages from Exodus and Deuteronomy written on a small leather strip. It is one of the oldest surviving physical tefillin in the world and is written on both sides (opisthographic) with the back text oriented perpendicularly to the front to maximize space.

An ancient Hebrew mezuzah fragment discovered in Cave 4 at Qumran, containing verses from Exodus 13:1–4. Dating to the Hasmonean period, it provides a valuable physical witness to early Jewish religious practices and the use of doorpost scrolls during the Second Temple era.

Written in the ancient Paleo-Hebrew script, this significant scroll from Qumran Cave 4 is one of the longest and best-preserved early copies of the Book of Exodus. Dating to the late Hasmonean period, it provides a valuable window into how the Torah was copied and preserved during the Second Temple era.

Written in the ancient Paleo-Hebrew script, this significant scroll from Qumran Cave 4 is one of the longest and best-preserved early copies of the Book of Exodus. Dating to the late Hasmonean period, it provides a valuable window into how the Torah was copied and preserved during the Second Temple era.

Written in the ancient Paleo-Hebrew script, this significant scroll from Qumran Cave 4 is one of the longest and best-preserved early copies of the Book of Exodus. Dating to the late Hasmonean period, it provides a valuable window into how the Torah was copied and preserved during the Second Temple era.

Written in the ancient Paleo-Hebrew script, this significant scroll from Qumran Cave 4 is one of the longest and best-preserved early copies of the Book of Exodus. Dating to the late Hasmonean period, it provides a valuable window into how the Torah was copied and preserved during the Second Temple era.

Written in the ancient Paleo-Hebrew script, this significant scroll from Qumran Cave 4 is one of the longest and best-preserved early copies of the Book of Exodus. Dating to the late Hasmonean period, it provides a valuable window into how the Torah was copied and preserved during the Second Temple era.

Written in the ancient Paleo-Hebrew script, this significant scroll from Qumran Cave 4 is one of the longest and best-preserved early copies of the Book of Exodus. Dating to the late Hasmonean period, it provides a valuable window into how the Torah was copied and preserved during the Second Temple era.

Written in the ancient Paleo-Hebrew script, this significant scroll from Qumran Cave 4 is one of the longest and best-preserved early copies of the Book of Exodus. Dating to the late Hasmonean period, it provides a valuable window into how the Torah was copied and preserved during the Second Temple era.

Written in the ancient Paleo-Hebrew script, this significant scroll from Qumran Cave 4 is one of the longest and best-preserved early copies of the Book of Exodus. Dating to the late Hasmonean period, it provides a valuable window into how the Torah was copied and preserved during the Second Temple era.

An ancient Hebrew tefillin (phylactery) slip discovered in Cave 4 at Qumran, containing biblical passages from Exodus and Deuteronomy. Written on parchment during the Hellenistic-Roman period, it is an important historical witness to early Jewish worship and liturgical practices during the Second Temple period.

An ancient tefillin (phylactery) slip containing verses from Exodus 13:1–10. It is written on both sides of the parchment (an opisthograph) and was discovered in Qumran Cave 4 inside the same leather capsule as other early ritual slips.

This ancient manuscript is a tefillin (phylactery) slip, preserving Exodus 13:1–7 on the front (recto) and Exodus 13:7–10 on the back (verso). Written in Hebrew on both sides of a narrow strip of parchment, it is an opisthograph that serves as an important physical witness to early Jewish prayer practices in the Second Temple period.

An ancient Hebrew manuscript from Qumran Cave 4 that uniquely combines passages from both Exodus and Deuteronomy. Written in a clear Herodian square script, this scroll may have served a liturgical or devotional purpose for personal study or prayer in the 1st century AD.

Codex Vaticanus is one of the oldest and most valuable surviving manuscripts of the complete Greek Bible. It has been securely housed in the Vatican Library since at least the late 15th century and is celebrated for its elegant script written on very high-quality vellum.

Codex Alexandrinus is one of the four great uncial codices of the Greek Bible. It contains the vast majority of the Septuagint and New Testament, and was the first of the great uncials to become accessible to modern scholars.